Which of the following is NOT among the Bradford Hill criteria for establishing causation in epidemiology?

• A Temporality
• B Biological gradient
• C Consistency
• D Confounding ✓

Explanation

Bradford Hill's nine viewpoints include strength, consistency, specificity, temporality, biological gradient, plausibility, coherence, experiment, and analogy. Confounding is a bias that must be controlled for, not a criterion for causation itself. Temporality, the requirement that cause precedes effect, is considered the essential criterion.

Reference: Park's Textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine, 27th ed.

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